Rebel Monster: The Ironclad CSS Virginia

By Tom Laemlein Posted in #History

Rebuilt from the scuttled hull of the USS Merrimack, the Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia steamed into Hampton Roads and changed naval warfare forever. Tom Laemlein details how this armored Civil War ram sank the USS Cumberland, destroyed the USS Congress, and spread panic through Washington D.C. on the first day of the Battle of Hampton Roads.

On April 17, 1861, the state of Virginia seceded from the Union. At the Norfolk Navy Yard, the 44-gun steam frigate USS Merrimack sat at anchor, decommissioned since February 1860. While the U.S. Navy prepared to get the frigate out of danger at Norfolk and move her to Philadelphia, the Virginians anticipated the maneuver and sunk several small boats to block Merrimack’s exit via the Elizabeth River. Even though her boilers were lit, there was nowhere to go—and on April 20^th Federal troops burned the Merrimack down to her waterline and sank the hull in the harbor.

The United States Navy lost the Gosport Navy Yard, along with Merrimack, the Pennsylvania (74-guns), the sloop Germantown (22 guns), sloop Plymouth (22 guns), the Delaware (74 guns), the Columbus (74 guns), the brig Dolphin (8 guns), the line of battleship New York (on the stocks), and the United States (in ordinary/reserve). The dry dock remained intact, and the rebels captured more than 1,000 heavy cannons.

The USS Merrimack had been launched at the Boston Navy Yard on June 15, 1855, and was commissioned in the U.S. Navy on February 20, 1856. She was decommissioned on February 16, 1860, and then burned and scuttled on April 20, 1861. However, by March 7, 1862, the ship was resurrected from her watery grave in the Elizabeth River and reborn as the ironclad ram CSS Virginia.

A Cost-Effective Option

Soon after the Gosport Navy Yard was captured, Confederate leaders decided to resurrect the Merrimack. The ship’s lower hull and machinery were found to be undamaged, and this convinced Stephen Mallory, the CSA’s Secretary of the Navy, to rebuild her as an ironclad. The armored ship concept was quickly gaining popularity among naval powers, and cost was as important as the ship’s ironclad defenses. To raise the Merrimack and reconstruct her as a steam frigate was estimated to cost $450,000. Her makeover as an ironclad was projected to cost $172,000. The CSA’s Congress quickly approved the lower amount.

By the end of July 1861, the lower hull was restored, and the construction of the casemate was underway. Even though it was economical, construction of the new ironclad design was not easy. Armor for the casemate was not readily available, and two layers of two-inch armor plate were required—punched for bolts and “ready for use”. Unfortunately, there were no tools available to punch two inches of cold iron. Consequently, the armor had to be drilled, which proved to be a slow and costly process. Work on the CSS Virginia’s armor plates continued well into February 1862.

Gunpower Behind the Armor

The Virginia’s casemate housed 10 heavy guns with 14 gunports from which to fire. The bow and stern cannons were pivot guns, with one gun port on the ship’s centerline and the other two ports angled at 45 degrees. The pivot cannons were muzzle-loaded 7-inch Brooke rifled guns, firing a 104-pound shell. There were also two 6.4-inch Brooke guns mounted on the casemate broadside, along with six 9-inch Dahlgren guns (three per side), salvaged from the Merrimack. The Dahlgren guns on each side nearest the boilers and could fire “hot shot”. The Virginia was an imposing floating battery, supplemented by a massive iron ram at the prow. Traditional Union warships had reason for concern.

Aboard the Virginia, there were concerns. Her design seemed sensible, but it was unproven in combat. The weight of the armor on her casemate, along with the heavy guns she carried, made the ship slow and hard to maneuver. The engines and boilers salvaged from Merrimack were functional, but not optimal, as they had been slated for replacement two years earlier. Also, the ironclad was without a crew until late February 1862, when 200 Confederate Army troops were recruited to man her. Certain details were left unfinished—for example, the armored shutters for Virginia’s gunports were not fitted in time for combat.

A Huge, Half-Submerged Crocodile

CSS Virginia was an experimental ship, and she was fraught with quirks and weaknesses. The engines were not strong enough, and her top speed was barely eight miles per hour. Steering was often barely manageable, and it took Virginia up to 40 minutes to turn 180 degrees.

The days before Saturday March 8, 1862, the workers had been frantically preparing Virginia for what everyone thought would be a short shake-down cruise on the Elizabeth River. Certainly, the crew and their strange new vessel were still “strangers to each other”. Even so, Captain Franklin Buchanan, commander of the James River Squadron and the Virginia, had a different plan.

Franklin delivered an inspired speech to his crew before Virginia set out for Hampton Roads: “Men, the eyes of your country are upon you. You are fighting for your rights, your liberties, your wives and children. You must not be content with only doing your duty, but to do more than your duty!”

It is said that Buchanan was concerned about the Union’s new rifled guns in the USS Cumberland’s 24-gun battery (including a 70-pounder). Questions remained if the solid bolt shot from a rifled gun could penetrate the ironclad’s casemate. Buchanan decided that fortune favored the bold, so the moment Virginia reached Hampton Roads where a Union blockade and the USS Cumberland were located, he would “make right for Cumberland and ram her.”

Aboard the gunboat CSS Beaufort, one of Virginia’s escorts, First Lieutenant William Parker commented “All realized the fact that here was to be tried the great experiment of the ram and ironclad in naval warfare.”

It was about 10 miles down the Elizabeth River, and Virginia’s suspect engines poured thick black smoke from the stacks. The Federal blockade squadron—the frigates Cumberland, Congress, Minnesota, Roanoke, and St. Lawrence—were quietly at anchor on wash day. The Federal gunboat Zouave spotted Virginia’s smoke and ran up signal flags to alert Congress and Cumberland, but no one noticed. The ironclad ram plodded onwards. It took a cannon round fired by Zouave to awaken the Federal fleet, Congress and Cumberland finally beat to quarters.

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Confederate batteries at Sewell’s Point began firing at the Union frigates at extreme range—not causing any damage but adding to the confusion. Federal batteries at Newport News fired on Virginia but caused no damage. Congress and Cumberland fired—their first salvos missed, and while the second round scored hits, these disintegrated on the ironclad’s casemate. A new era of naval warfare had begun.

One Federal sailor described Virginia as she approached: “She looked like a huge, half-submerged crocodile.”

Virginia held her fire until within close range, and the forward 7-inch Brooke rifle sent an explosive shell into Cumberland’s starboard side, splintering the rail and exploding near the frigate’s aft gun. Virginia’s next round hit the Cumberland’s forward pivot gun, killing most of the gun crew.

When Virginia was about 400 yards from Cumberland, she turned parallel to the Congress’ starboard side. Congress unleashed a full broadside that hammered Virginia’s armored casemate—but the rounds did not penetrate. The blast and concussion on the Confederate sailors had a stunning effect, but this was short-lived. Virginia’s gun crews recovered and loosed their own four-gun broadside against Congress. One explosive shell blew up a gun, while a “hot shot” round started a fire.

In HW Wilson’s “Ironclads in Action” (London, 1897), he provides a 19^th Century description of the Virginia’s approach: “The Northern ships beat to quarters and prepared for action, sending the Zouave, a small gunboat, to reconnoitre. This little vessel attacked “the roof of a barn with a huge chimney,” by firing at it with her 32-pounder rifled gun but quickly found that she could do no damage whatever and retired. The Merrimac took no notice but went steadily on. Soon after one o’clock she was fired upon by the Cumberland, and shortly after by the Congress and the shore batteries. The projectiles, however, did her no harm, and the Unionist officers were petrified with astonishment when they saw them glance off her armoured hull like so many peas.”

Virginia’s Chief Engineer H.A. Ramsey described the effect of the Union shells against the ironclad: “They struck our sloping sides and burst harmlessly in the air or rolled down and fell hissing into the water.”

During the gunfire, the Virginia was prepared to ram. She backed up slightly, then plunged forward to gore Cumberland. The Federal frigate had an extra layer of waterline protection, with logs placed around the boat to defend against “torpedoes” (at that time, torpedoes were floating explosive charges). However, these made no difference and Virginia’s massive iron ram smashed through the logs to crush the Cumberland’s hull below the waterline. The hole was massive, and the sea poured in. To make matters worse, Virginia’s forward gun fired the instant the two ships came into contact, and the shell exploded deep in the interior of the frigate. Cumberland began to go down by the bow.

Meanwhile, the Virginia was enmeshed with the sinking Cumberland, and the ironclad’s weak engines struggled to pull her loose. For a few moments, the Confederate ram and the Union frigate clung together and blasted each other at point-blank range. A late shot from Cumberland severed one of Virginia’s gun barrels. All the while, Virginia’s stern pivot gun engaged the Congress, killing many of the remaining crew, and starting several fires.

Finally, the Virginia’s massive iron ram broke away and the ironclad pulled free. Even so, the close-range fight with Cumberland wasn’t over, and the Yankee frigate’s death throes continued for another 30 minutes. The Virginia’s men were repeatedly warned to stay away from the ship’s casemate walls—get too close and the hammer blow from a Federal shell would leave the sailor concussed, and often bleeding from the eyes, nose, and ears.

Throughout the brutal fight with Cumberland, Virginia’s stern gun pounded away at the Congress. With Cumberland sunk, Buchanan decided to turn his full attention to the second Yankee frigate, but this required the lengthy process to turn the ironclad around. As Virginia moved off to go up the James River for her turn, the sailors aboard the wounded Congress began to cheer, believing they had driven the Rebel monster off. To complete her turn in the mouth of the James, Virginia came under fire from Federal batteries mounted there and dueled with them twice as she maneuvered. Captain Franklin later described: “We silenced several batteries and did much injury on shore.”

The Tragedy of Congress

As Virginia completed her long turnaround to face Congress, three Confederate gunboats (Patrick Henry, Teaser, and Jamestown) joined the fight and fired on the Federal gun positions ashore. While Virginia was occupied with her turning maneuver, the Congress’ commander managed to beach his burning frigate about a hundred yards of Union batteries on Signal Point. Lieutenant Smith reasoned that at the least, his ship could not be rammed and sunk. Congress had some additional protection from the shore batteries along with the shallow waters to his stern.

Buchanan brought the Virginia as close as he dared, about 250 yards behind the damaged frigate and opened fire with full broad sides. Four Rebel gunboats joined in, and Congress was reduced to a broken and burning hulk. Lieutenant Smith was killed, and one of Congress’ many wounded included the ship’s Paymaster McKean Buchanan, the brother of Virginia’s commander, Captain Franklin Buchanan.

Raked Fore and Aft

After an hour of bombardment, Congress raised the white flag. Buchanan ceased fire and directed the gunboats Raleigh and Beaufort to go alongside Congress to remove what wounded she could and take the frigate’s remaining officers as prisoner—and then to burn the Yankee frigate. As wounded men from Congress were taken aboard the Rebel gunboats, Federal troops on the beach opened fire with rifles and field artillery—killing Confederate and Yankee sailors alike. Raleigh managed to recall her men from Congress and retire under fire with 23 wounded Yankee sailors aboard.

On the Virginia, Buchanan did not know of the Yankee infantry attack and angrily assumed that the gunboats had failed to burn Congress. He sent his own small boat with 10 men to do the job, and when this boat was turned away with casualties, Buchanan was enraged. Virginia moved in as close as possible to Congress and blasted the beached frigate—her hot shot turning the ship into an inferno.

This was still not enough for Buchanan, and he took a rifle to the top deck to take revenge on the Federal troops. He was soon struck in the leg with a musket ball, and when taken below he yielded command to Executive Officer Lieutenant Catesby Jones. Jones moved Virginia to engage the USS Minnesota, aground less than two miles from the ironclad and two gunboat consorts. Virginia was able to close to within about a mile, and peppered Minnesota with her heavy guns until nightfall made accurate aiming unlikely.

With the danger of running aground a real possibility, Jones guided Virginia out of Hampton Roads and steamed into the Elizabeth River, her stern gun still firing at the Minnesota. By the early evening, Virginia was anchored at the relative safety of Sewell’s Point, and her crew watched the burning Congress put on a fireworks show. Chief Engineer Ramsey recorded: “About midnight came the grand finale. The magazines exploded, shooting up a huge column of firebrands hundreds of feet in the air, and then the burning hulk burst asunder and melted into the waters.”

Not Over

In just one day, the USS Cumberland and Congress were destroyed, and Minnesota was damaged. The Federal fleet was in disarray. Meanwhile, Virginia suffered two dead and eight wounded, including Captain Buchanan. The ship had been hit multiple times, and her smokestack was riddled with holes and reduced her speed. Two of the 9-inch Dahlgren guns were damaged, losing a foot or so of their exposed barrel. These cannons could not be quickly replaced, and their crews were obliged to use them in their shortened condition. Sections of the casemate armor were loosened by repeated hits. Both her cutters had been shot to pieces and her two 12-pound anti-boarding howitzers had been destroyed. Both flagstaffs had to be replaced.

Catesby Jones accepted compliments from his fellow officers on “a pretty good day’s work”, to which Jones wisely responded: “Yes, but it is not over.” Recovering in his cabin from his gunshot wound, Captain Buchanan planned another attack on the grounded Minnesota as soon as possible.

Panic in the North

Wilson’s “Ironclads in Action” notes the extreme reaction of some Northern politicians to Virginia’s attack on the Federal navy. “The effect of this terrible defeat upon the North was stunning. In a moment their splendid frigates had been proved useless; there was nothing between the ironclad and New York but the little Monitor, now some days at sea.”

On the Sunday after the battle, a Cabinet meeting was convened by President Lincoln, at which Secretary of War Edwin Stanton expressed dismay: “The Merrimac will change the whole course of the war; she will destroy every naval vessel; she will lay all the cities on the seaboard under contribution. I shall immediately recall Burnside; Port Royal must be abandoned. I will notify the governors and municipal authorities in the North to take instant measures to protect their harbors. I have no doubt that the enemy is this minute on her way to Washington, and it is not unlikely that we shall have a shell or a cannon ball from one of her guns in the White House before we leave the room.”

Lincoln was concerned but he did not share Stanton’s wild apprehensions. Even so, it was proposed to sink the frigate St. Lawrence to obstruct the channel of the Potomac. Cooler heads prevailed in the North, and the USS Monitor moved into position to protect Minnesota at Hampton Roads. Armored ships would soon face each other in combat for the first time, and naval warfare would never be the same.

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